Neuroanatomy Lecture (Kartei)

201 Karteikarten

• 1
  CNS

  - Brain - Spinal Cord
• 2
  PNS

  Somatic nervous system - Connections to sensory organs - ...
• 3
  Properties of autonomous nervous system (in contrast to ...

  # Behaviour: Largely involuntary # Anatomy: Fine network ...
• 4
  Differences between sympathetic and parasympathetic system

  Sympathicus - Often increases energy consumption - ...
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  Nervous system in Cnidaria ("Nesseltiere", Hydra)

  - Lowest organisms with neuronal network (distributed nerve ...
• 6
  Nervous system in Plathelminthen, Nemathelminthen ...

  - Lowest organisms with CNS - Body axis, specialized head ...
• 7
  Principles of the development of nervous systems

  - Hard-wired molecular programs - Epigenetic processes ...
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  Development of the CNS in vertebrates

  - Dorsally positioned tube-like nerve strand (produced by ...
• 9
  Organization of the CNS: General principles

  # Tendency of centralization, "cephalization" # 99.999% of ...
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  Organization of the spinal cord

  # Segmented organization (31 paired spinal nerves in 4 ...
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  Organization of the brain

  # Telencephalon ("Endhirn") # Diencephalon ...
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  Telencephalon ("Endhirn")

  Cerebral cortex - Paleocortex (bulbus olfactorius): "old", ...
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  Diencephalon ("Zwischenhirn")

  - Thalamus (processing of sensory information) - ...
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  Mesencephalon ("Mittelhirn")

  - Dorsal part: Tectum (sup + inf colliculus) - Ventral ...
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  Metencephalon ("Hinterhirn")

  - Pons (relays sensory information between cerebellum and ...
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  Myelencephalon ("Nachhirn")

  Medulla oblongata (Concerned with sensation from and motor ...
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  Importance of blood supply

  - Anoxia (absence of oxygen) and ischemia (reduced blood ...
• 18
  Structure of blood supply

  - Four large arteries - Two arteriae carotides internae ...
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  Blood-brain barrier: Experiment

  Goldmann-Experiment 1: Intravenous staining with Trypan ...
• 20
  Blood-brain barrier: Explanation

  Tight junctions between endothelial cells (cells that ...
• 21
  Blood-liquor barrier: Experiment

  Goldmann-Experiment 2: Trypanblue into liquor room; only ...
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  Blood-liquor barrier: Explanation

  - CNS is surrounded by cerebrospinal liquid - Liquid is ...
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  Types of mechanoreceptors

  # Free nerve endings (Hair receptor, Merkel disk receptor): ...
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  Examples for thermal receptors

  Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels VR1 (vanilloid ...
• 25
  Classes of pain

  # Nociceptive pain: Activation of nociceptors # Neuropathic ...
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  Signal transduction of pain receptors

  - Major excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate - C-fibers ...
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  Analgesic (pain-relieving) agents

  - Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is a metabolite of arachidonic ...
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  Transmission of receptor signals to the spinal cord

  - Cell bodies are clustered in dorsal root ganglia of ...
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  Pathways of mechanoreceptor information

  In spinal cord # Central axons enter spinal cord in dorsal ...
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  Pathways of thermo- and pain receptor information

  In spinal cord # Central axons also enter spinal cord in ...
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  Gate theory

  - Modulatory circuits regulate pain - Descending fibers ...
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  Somatotopy

  - Orderly distribution of inputs from different portions of ...
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  Parallel processing

  - More than one somatotopic map (e.g. four complete maps of ...
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  Serial organization: Principles

  - Principle of "relays" - Information is processed at every ...
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  Serial organization: Example

  - Thalamus (part of Diencephalon) is relay, has gate-keeper ...
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  Principles of information processing by mechanoreceptors

  - Somatotopy - Parallel processing - Serial organization
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  Motor unit

  Single (alpha-)motoneuron and all muscle fibers that are ...
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  Muscle fiber

  - Muscle fiber consist of fused cells (individual muscle ...
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  Motor neurons in spinal cord

  Motor neurons that innervate one muscle are clustered into ...
• 40
  Muscle contraction

  # End plate: Release of acetylcholine leads to ...
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  Muscle types

  - Slow-twitch fibers: Red muscles, Type I fibers, ...
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  Muscle spindle: Anatomy

  - Encapsulated muscle fibers ("intrafusal") parallel to ...
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  Reflex: Definition

  - Involuntary coordinated patterns of muscle contraction ...
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  Test for reflex

  - Complete transection of spinal cord from brain - Reflex ...
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  Different types of (muscle) innervation

  - Homonymous: One muscle involved - Heteronymous: Muscles ...
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  Stretch reflex

  - Receptors in muscles (spindles) - Most simple: ...
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  Flexion reflex (withdrawal reflex)

  - Cutaneous (skin) receptors - Polysynaptic pathway (more ...
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  Crossed-extension reflex

  - Flexor contracted - -> flexor on contralateral side ...
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  Spinal shock

  - Spinal cord injury - -> Neurons involved in reflex arcs ...
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  Hypothalamus: Properties

  - Part of diencephalon - Very small (4g) - Region where ...
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  Hypothalamus: Control of endocrine system

  via pituitary gland - Directly: Neuroendocrine motoneurons ...
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  Input of hypothalamus

  - Liquor-contact neurons - Sensory centers of ...
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  Pituitary gland

  - Posterior pituitary gland ("Neurohypophyse"): Part of ...
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  Formatio reticularis (brain stem)

  - Part of the brain that is involved in actions such as ...
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  Properties of drive states

  - Characterized by tension, discomfort due to physiological ...
• 56
  Role of hypothalamus in feeding

  # Wide spectrum of transmitters have strong effects on ...
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  Regulatory function of leptin and ghrelin in feeding

  - Leptin circulates at levels proportional to body fat, ...
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  Major pathway of voluntary movement: Corticospinal tract

  # Originates from primary motor cortex (area 4), premotor ...
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  Extrapyramidal system of movement: Properties

  - Older system for control of movement - Involves group of ...
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  Extrapyramidal system of movement: Function

  - Regulates involuntary movements for keeping posture, ...
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  Extrapyramidal system of movement: Basal ganglia

  Deep-lying structures - Striatum (in telencephalon) - ...
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  Basal ganglia: Parkinson disease

  - Lesion of the Substantia nigra - Paucity of spontaneous ...
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  Extrapyramidal system of movement: Striatum

  - Integration unit (besides Cerebellum) - Innervated by ...
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  Lesions of extrapyramidal system

  - Hemiballism: Lesion of subthalamic nucleus - Chorea ...
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  Cerebellum: What it looks like

  - Neurons arranged in highly regular manner as repeating ...
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  Cerebellum: Functional organization: Three parts

  Vestibulocerebellum - Receives input from vestibulum ...
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  Cerebellum: Five types of neurons

  # Stellate neurons (inhibitory) # Basket neurons ...
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  Three layers of cerebellar cortex

  Molecular layer - Cell bodies of stellate and basket ...
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  Cerebellum: Input connections

  Input from mossy fibers - Excitatory input - Originates ...
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  Connections within cerebellar cortex

  - Parallel fibers: Axons of granule cells travel to ...
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  (Inhibitory) output connections of cerebellum

  - Output of cerebellar cortex: Axons of purkinje neurons ...
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  Principles of function of cerebellum

  Enhancement of contrast - Stellate neurons, basket neurons ...
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  Motor learning in Cerebellum

  - Conditioned stimulus (eg. tone) via mossy fiber to ...
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  Development of Cerebellum

  - Bergmann glia: Astrocytes in cerebellum with cell bodies ...
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  Staining cells

  - Golgi stain: Individual cells + cell processes - Nissl ...
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  The cerebral cortex: Basics

  - Functional basis of cognition as a "indirect and ...
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  Evolution of the cerebral cortex

  - Paleocortex: "Oldest" and most simple part (olfactory ...
• 78
  Gross anatomy of the cerebral cortex: Four major lobes

  - Frontal lobe - Parietal lobe - Temporal lobe - Occipital ...
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  Functional distinction of regions of the cerebral cortex

  - Afferent: Primary sensory, auditory - Efferent: Primary ...
• 80
  Histological organization of the cortex: Six layers

  - I. Molecular layer: Acellular, occupied by dendrites and ...
• 81
  Cell types in cerebral cortex

  Inhibitory (GABA) - Basket cells (axosomatic synapses) - ...
• 82
  Cytoarchitecture of cerebral cortex, two examples

  - Brodmann: Construction of cytoarchitectonic map of ...
• 83
  Columns as basic functional units: Organization

  - Neurons cannot all be connected (would be too slow) -> ...
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  Input connections of columns

  Association fibers - Fibers from other columns that reach ...
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  Connections within a column

  - Glutamatergic connections onto excitatory cells - ...
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  Output connections of a column

  - Pyramidal cells of layer III and V - Excitatory neurons ...
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  Electrical synapses

  - Immediate signal transmission - Oscillatory activity in ...
• 88
  Development of the cortical layers

  - Inside-first outside-last program of neurogenesis - ...
• 89
  Two-state-model of memory formation

  Online state - Active, explorative phase - High activity ...
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  Working memory

  - Persistent firing of neurons (<30s) - Studied in most ...
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  Explicit (declarative) memory

  - Facts & events - Medial temporal lobe
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  Implicit (nondeclarative) memory

  - Priming (neocortex) - Procedural memory: Skills & habits ...
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  Amnesia (e.g. patient H.M.)

  - Problems with formation of new declarative memories - ...
• 94
  Alzheimers disease

  - Early stages: Specific deficit in explicit memory - Early ...
• 95
  Major pathway for acquiring declarative memories

  - Entorhinal cortex and hippocampus are way stations but ...
• 96
  Entorhinal cortex

  - Main input to hippocampus, preprocessing of input ...
• 97
  Hippocampus: Basics

  - Develops from special fold at the edge of the cerebral ...
• 98
  Hippocampus: Cell types

  - Basket cells: Inhibitory axo-somatic contacts - ...
• 99
  Hippocampus: Input

  - Perforant path (from entorhinal cortex) - Contacts ...
• 100
  Connections within hippocampus

  Trisynaptic pathway Mossy fiber pathway # From dentate ...
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  Output of hippocampus

  Axons of pyramidal cells that form the alveus
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  The hippocampus in memory formation: No direct sensory ...

  - Hippocampus highly connected to cortex (including ...
• 103
  Hippocampus: Sensitivity to history

  - Brief high-frequency train of stimuli increases amplitude ...
• 104
  Different time scales of long-term potentiation in ...

  - One stimulus train: No protein synthesis required ...
• 105
  Oscillations in hippocampus

  - Cooperative firing occurs in hippocampus with different ...
• 106
  Genetic enhancement of memory

  - Overexpression of NMDA receptor subunit -> larger window ...
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  Non-genetic enhancement of memory

  - Galantamine, "donepezil" - Mice without receptor for ...
• 108
  Role of Limbic system

  - Primary emotions (inborn, preorganized): Circuits ...
• 109
  Anatomy of Limbic System

  - Ring-like complex ("ring of Papez") - Localized in medial ...
• 110
  Lesion of limbic system

  - Example: Phineas Gage - Lesion in ventromedial part of ...
• 111
  Cingulate gyrus

  - Connects higher centers and body responses with limbic ...
• 112
  Role of Amygdala

  - Mediates both unconscious emotional state (primary ...
• 113
  Anatomy of Amygdala

  - Complex structure - Consists of about 10 distinct ...
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  Input connections of Amygdala

  Thalamus and cortex regions via (baso)lateral nuclei
• 115
  Output connections of amygdala

  - Cortex regions via central nucleus and nucleus basalis ...
• 116
  Principles of function of amygdala

  - Long-term potentiation - Fear memory storage - Stress ...
• 117
  Long-term potentiation in Amygdala

  - Learning of emotional states: e.g. classical conditioning ...
• 118
  Fear memory storage in amygdala

  - Not only acquisition - Lesion -> already learned fear ...
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  Stress response in amygdala

  - GABA-ergic projections from amygdala to hypothalamus - -> ...
• 120
  Amygdala and reward

  - Traditional view: Amygdala associated with "negative ...
• 121
  Memory consolidation of Amygdala

  - Stress hormones and other neuromodulatory systems ...
• 122
  Neurochemistry of Amygdala

  - GABAergic system in central nucleus critical for function ...
• 123
  Features of Consciousness

  - Subjectivity: Own "direct" experience appears more "real" ...
• 124
  Partial loss of consciousness: Astereognosis

  - Patients seem to have lost discrete part of ...
• 125
  Features of coma

  - Patients cannot make purposeful response to stimulation - ...
• 126
  Reasons for coma

  - Bilateral impairment of cerebral hemispheres - e.g. ...
• 127
  General features of Neurotransmitters with low molecular ...

  - Small charged molecules - Short pathways of synthesis, ...
• 128
  Types of Neurotransmitters with low molecular weight

  - Acetylcholine - Biogenic amines - Amino acids - Purines
• 129
  Functions of Acetylcholine

  - Transmitter of motoneurons - Transmitter of all ...
• 130
  Types of biogenic amines

  - Katecholamines: Dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine - ...
• 131
  Types of Amino acid neurotransmitters

  - glutamate - glycine - GABA
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  Types of purines

  - ATP - Adenosine
• 133
  Two components of uptake of transmitters in vesicles

  - Specific transporters (for particular type of neuron) - ...
• 134
  Four different transporters for neurotransmitters

  - Acetylcholine - Biogenic amines - Glutamate - GABA and ...
• 135
  Amphetamines, "Ecstasy"

  - Abolish pH gradient - Transporters for biogenic amines ...
• 136
  Features of the ascending arousal system

  - Integrating system for coordination of brain activity - ...
• 137
  Role of the ascending arousal system

  - Coordination of autonomous functions - Arousal system - ...
• 138
  Subsystems of the ascending arousal system

  - Cholinergic - Dopaminergic - Noradrenergic - ...
• 139
  Cholinergic system: Anatomy

  - Basal telecencephalon nuclei innervate large regions of ...
• 140
  Cholinergic system: Role

  - Control of general brain activity (arousal system) - ...
• 141
  Dopaminergic system: Parts

  - Neurons in substantia nigra - Neurons in ventral tegmentum
• 142
  Dopaminergic system: Neurons in substantia nigra

  - Anatomy: Projections to striatum - Role: Control of ...
• 143
  Dopaminergic system: Neurons in ventral tegmentum

  - Anatomy: Projections to frontal cortex and limbic ...
• 144
  Dopaminergic system: Involvement of neurons in ventral ...

  - Decrease of dopaminergic synaptic transmission (e.g. ...
• 145
  Noradrenergic system: Anatomy

  - Most neurons localized in Locus coeruleus - Axonal ...
• 146
  Noradrenergic system: Role

  - Control of general brain activity (arousal system) - ...
• 147
  Serotonergic system: Anatomy

  - Most neurons in nine Raphe nuclei of brain stem - Project ...
• 148
  Serotonergic system: Role

  - Modulates arousal, emotional state and sleep cycles - ...
• 149
  Influence of drugs on serotonergic system

  - Antidepressant "Prozac" inhibits re-uptake of serotonin, ...
• 150
  Peptidergic projections: Anatomy

  - More distributed in the brain - Hypothalamic neurons that ...
• 151
  Difference between peptidergic transmission and others

  - Exocytosis is much slower and less regulated - Release is ...
• 152
  Opioid peptides: Types of receptors

  Delta, kappa, mu
• 153
  Opioid peptides: Anatomy

  - G-protein-linked receptors (inhibitory G-proteins, 7 ...
• 154
  Distribution of receptors for opioid peptides

  - Mu: Cortex layer I and IV, thalamus, amygdala, brain ...
• 155
  Role of opiod peptides

  - Effect on central arousal system - Effect decreases with ...
• 156
  Characteristics of circadian rhythms

  - Endogenously induced by central oscillator - Modulated by ...
• 157
  Anatomy of central oscillator

  - Lower vertebrates: Pineal body, serves as light-sensitive ...
• 158
  Central oscillator: How it works

  - Time constant may be determined by complex ...
• 159
  Circadian rhythms: Modulation

  Lower vertebrates - Pineal body; light sensitive organ in ...
• 160
  Melatonin

  - Produced by pineal gland. - Synthesized from Tryptophan ...
• 161
  Characteristics of sleep

  - Reduced motor activity - Decreased response to ...
• 162
  Phases of sleep

  - Cycle of non-REM and REM-phases is typically repeated 4-6 ...
• 163
  Properties of non-REM sleep

  - Low neuronal activity - Low metabolic rate and brain ...
• 164
  Subphases of non-REM sleep

  - I. Transition from wakefulness to onset of sleep - II. ...
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  Properties of REM sleep

  - Discharge pattern of most neurons similar to ...
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  Function of sleep

  - Not completely clear, but necessary for life - ...
• 167
  Regulation of sleep

  - Medulla: Has inhibitory effect on reticular formation; - ...
• 168
  Regulation of sleep phases by Nucleus reticularis pontis ...

  - Regulated by nucleus reticularis pontis oralis (RPO, part ...
• 169
  Regulation of sleep phases by Ventrolateral preoptic ...

  - central VLPO -> cholinergic neurons -> wakefulness + ...
• 170
  Muscle tonus during REM sleep

  - Motor neurons actively inhibited by circuitry in pons and ...
• 171
  Causes of narcolepsy

  - Neurons fire in wake state that are normally only active ...
• 172
  Symptoms of Narcolepsy

  - Sudden loss of muscle tonus (cataplexy) while retaining ...
• 173
  Degeneration of neurons

  - Axotomy - Wallerian changes - Chromatolytic reaction - ...
• 174
  Axotomy

  - Transection of the axon: Most common injury of nerve ...
• 175
  Wallerian changes

  - Myelin sheath of distal axon becomes fragmented and ...
• 176
  Chromatolytic reaction

  - Cell body swells - Rough endoplasmic reticulum becomes ...
• 177
  Propagation of degeneration by transsynaptic effects

  - Loss of postsynaptic cell due to loss of input - ...
• 178
  Regeneration

  - PNS: Regeneration can occur from "proximal stump" - CNS: ...
• 179
  Inhibitory components of regeneration

  - Central myelin - Glycoproteins (Myelin-associated, ...
• 180
  Causes of brain aging and aging-related diseases

  - Changes in informational macromolecules (DNA, RNA, ...
• 181
  Aging-related brain changes

  - Decrease of brain weight - Some neuronal populations ...
• 182
  Old people with "successful brain aging"

  - Little or no decrease in number of neurons - Neuronal ...
• 183
  Regenerative capacity of some brain regions

  - Olfactory bulb, dentate gyrus - Neuroblasts: Dividing ...
• 184
  Alzheimer's disease: Occurrence

  - In higher ages (sporadic form) - 7% of people older than ...
• 185
  Alzheimer's disease: Brain changes

  Senile plaques (extracellular) - Produced from Abeta ...
• 186
  Amyloid hypothesis

  - Altered production, aggregation, and deposition of the ...
• 187
  Familial forms of Alzheimer

  - Appear all to work on Abeta-level - Risk factor: Apo E ...
• 188
  Treatment of Alzheimer

  - No causal therapy possible yet - ...
• 189
  Symptoms of Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

  Chronic neurodegenerative disease - Progressive loss of ...
• 190
  Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS): Brain changes

  - Axonal swellings (very selective vulnerability) - ...
• 191
  Myesthenia gravis: Cause

  - Antibodies against nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in ...
• 192
  Myesthenia gravis: Symptoms

  - Muscle weakness in absence of signs of denervation - ...
• 193
  Myesthenia gravis: Treatment

  Reversal of weakness by drugs that inhibit ...
• 194
  Demyelinating diseases: Causes

  - Immune system (multiple sclerosis) - Genetic defect in ...
• 195
  Demyelinating diseases: Symptoms

  - Progressive muscle weakness - Greatly decreased ...
• 196
  Three phases of multiple sclerosis

  - Preclinical (axonal transection) - Relapsing (reversible ...
• 197
  Animal model of demyelinating diseases

  - Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis - Induces local ...
• 198
  Parkinson disease: Cause

  Deficiency of neurotransmitter dopamine
• 199
  Parkinson disease: Symptoms

  - Paucity of spontaneous movement ("Maskengesicht") - ...
• 200
  Parkinson disease: Therapy

  - Administration of L-DOPA (precursor of dopamine) - But: ...
• 201
  Parkinson disease: Familial forms

  - Mutations in parkin-gene and synuclein-gene - Connection ...